The review in brief
Our systematic review maps out how hate crime, hate speech, and hate incidents are defined and measured, highlighting gaps and suggesting improvements for research and policy. An annex is provided, comprising complete lists of the original definitions and measurement tools that met our inclusion criteria. This compendium serves as a valuable tool for researchers and policymakers globally, guiding the selection of definitions and methodologies in future efforts to understand and combat hate.
What is this review about?
Hate crimes, hate incidents, and hate speech are challenging to define and measure consistently. Research and policy work in this important area have developed in disciplinary silos, leading to varied definitions and measurement methods. These variations in definitions hinder how research, policies, and programmes are put into practice, resulting in inconsistent data quality and reporting. This lack of uniformity makes it difficult to build a strong evidence base needed to evaluate and create effective policies and interventions aimed at reducing hate-related behaviours. It also creates obstacles in setting legal standards to define what constitutes hate and in determining which groups need protection. This inconsistency affects the fair treatment of victims across different jurisdictions, hinders the development of suitable laws, and leads to confusion within communities about what actually counts as hate, which can discourage people from reporting such incidents. Our review examined academic articles, grey literature, and legislation across ten countries to understand these discrepancies and their implications, including Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Australia, and New Zealand.
What is the aim of this review?
This review aims to map the definitions and measurements of hate-related phenomena, providing a resource for researchers and policymakers to build upon. We analysed definitions found in 569 documents in five languages (English, German, French, Spanish, and Italian) to understand how hate crime, hate incidents, and hate speech are defined and measured.
What studies are included?
We included 423 academic definitions, 168 measurement tools in the literature, and 83 definitions in legislation. The quality of evidence varies, with many studies excluded due to a lack of transparency in methodology and data reporting. The findings suggest a need for interdisciplinary collaboration and standardisation in future hate research.
What are the main findings of this review?
Our review found significant diversity in definitions and tools for measuring hate crimes, incidents, and speech. There is a disproportionate focus on ethnic and religious identities, with other characteristics like gender and disability less covered, especially within hate speech. Most research originates from English-speaking countries, with limited collaboration across different disciplines. Many existing tools were excluded for opaque methodology, and a notable portion of studies lacked clear definitions, underlining the need for more rigorous standards.
What do the findings of this review mean?
The current landscape shows a research and policy gap in the protection of various identities and the standardisation of research methodologies. To elevate the quality and reliability of future research on hate, there is a pressing need for clearer methodologies and more comprehensive definitions that span a wider range of protected characteristics. Encouraging interdisciplinary collaboration could enhance the development of more robust research frameworks and tools.
How up-to-date is this review?
This review includes literature and legislation published between 1 January 1990, and 31 December 2021. The search for relevant studies was completed on 12 April 2022.