Exposure to hate in the media negatively affects how we think, feel, and act, but it’s unclear how it connects to extreme views
What is this review about?
This systematic review seeks to determine the consequences for individuals or groups when they are exposed directly or as bystanders to hate speech online (websites, social networks, etc.) or through traditional media (newspapers, television, radio, etc.).
In this review “hate speech” refers to any type of communication in speech, writing, behavior, or multimedia, that attacks or uses pejorative or discriminatory language regarding a person or a group based on their protected characteristics, in other words, their religion, race, ethnicity, nationality, color, descent, and gender. Importantly, hateful rhetoric does not target individuals themselves but rather expresses feelings of disdain toward a collective.
To achieve this objective, we have searched for studies through various sources that present evidence on the impact of exposure to hate on people, as well as on the consequences with which this exposure to hate is associated.
Using this information, we conducted several meta-analyses. A meta-analysis is a type of scientific study that systematically synthesizes and analyzes the results of multiple previous research studies on a specific topic. Instead of conducting a new study, a meta-analysis compiles data and results from several existing studies and combines them statistically to obtain an overall conclusion.
What are the main findings of this review?
We identified 55 studies that addressed this issue and identified 43 different consequences or outcomes of exposure to hate, which we classified into five major categories: Attitudinal changes, Intergroup dynamics, Interpersonal behaviors, Psychological effects, and Political beliefs. Using this information, we were able to perform 24 meta-analyses on the first four categories.
In terms of attitude changes, exposure to hate leads to negative attitudes toward individuals or groups with protected characteristics. There is some evidence to suggest that it also may lead to negative stereotypes about these individuals or groups, while potentially hindering the promotion of positive attitudes toward them. However, it does not increase support for hate content or political violence.
Exposure to hate reduces trust between targeted groups and the general population but does not significantly impact the perception of discrimination among minorities. It is also linked to online victimization, offline violent behavior, and a contagion effect in online comments. Additionally, there is an indication of an association with online hate speech perpetration. Despite these negative effects, exposure to hate does not seem to directly affect hate crimes in specific areas, nor does foster resistance behaviors among individuals who are frequently exposed to it (e.g., the intention to counter-argue factually). Psychological well-being is significantly impacted, as exposure to hate causes depressive symptoms, reduces life satisfaction, and is associated with an increased social fear related to the likelihood of a terrorist attack. Nonetheless, it does not generate or contribute to the development of negative emotions related to its content.
What do the findings of this review mean?
This review confirms that when people are exposed to hate in the media, this exposure has a strong negative impact on them as individuals and potentially on the groups to which they belong. These findings are important for creating policies and interventions to prevent and address this problem. Hate speech propagates through biased comments and perceptions, normalizing prejudice and causing harm to the groups targeted. It can also lead to violence, victimization, and the perpetuation of these discourses among other individuals. Surprisingly, this research found that people exposed to hate speech do not necessarily feel increased outrage or disgust toward the content itself. This may explain why hate speech spreads easily, as people may be more inclined to relay material if they are not offended by it. It may also explain why some individuals perceive hate speech as not harmful, and therefore see no need to regulate it. Thus, public policies and interventions that focus solely on the content of hate speech may not produce significant change.
How up-to-date is this review?
The review includes studies published up to December 2021.